Free Essays on Native American History

can obscure meaning, which leads to misunderstanding and misinformation. Written documents are valuable, but are not always to be trusted. They do not convey the truth of things only what the author wants you to believe happened. In this way the Native Americans perceive the spoken word to ... Free Essays on Native American History Free Essays on Native American History History is the study of life; it does not live within written facts of time and events. It lives within our experiences, our spirit, and it also comes from the perceptions of our peoples. It does not need to be written down to be valid. The Native Americans experience history through a great oral tradition. Generation to generation stories of Native American culture and history is told by the older and wiser to the young. Laguna Pueblo Author Leslie Marmon Silko states, â€Å"Through the stories we hear who we are.† Is this not history? Collective memories through successive generations can maintain and transmit an entire culture. The Native Americans have a spiritual history as well. It is similar to both the Christian history and the Islamic history. The Christian faith and Islamic faith is based on stories that were eventually written down in the form of the Bible and the Koran. The Native American faith is similar to both as it was created by stories also, yet not written down. Does this make it any less valid? The Christians believe in God. The Islamic believe in Allah. The Native Americans Believe in the â€Å"Breath Giver.† Since they are all stories similar in nature, to discount any one would make the others invalid as well. So if we accept the Bible and the Koran to be histories of a sort, then we have to accept the stories of the Native American to be histories of their own. Perception is also a key to understanding history. The Europeans perceive that written history is more reliable than the spoken word. However, the Native Americans perceive words to be highly valued when spoken from the heart, for written words can obscure meaning, which leads to misunderstanding and misinformation. Written documents are valuable, but are not always to be trusted. They do not convey the truth of things only what the author wants you to believe happened. In this way the Native Americans perceive the spoken word to ...

250 Million Years of Turtle Evolution

250 Million Years of Turtle Evolution In a way, turtle evolution is an easy story to follow: the basic turtle body plan arose very early in the history of life (during the late Triassic period), and has persisted pretty much unchanged down to the present day, with the usual variations in size, habitat, and ornamentation. As with most other types of animals, though, the turtle evolutionary tree includes its share of missing links (some identified, some not), false starts, and short-lived episodes of gigantism. Turtles That Werent: Placodonts of the Triassic Period Before discussing the evolution of genuine turtles, its important to say a few words about convergent evolution: the tendency of creatures that inhabit roughly the same ecosystems to develop roughly the same body plans. As you probably already know, the theme of squat, stubby-legged, slow-moving animal with a big, hard shell to defend itself against predators has been repeated numerous times throughout history: witness dinosaurs like Ankylosaurus and Euoplocephalus and giant Pleistocene mammals like Glyptodon and Doedicurus. This brings us to the placodonts, an obscure family of Triassic reptiles closely related to the plesiosaurs and pliosaurs of the Mesozoic Era. The poster genus for this group, Placodus, was an unremarkable-looking creature that spent most of its time on land, but some of its marine relativesincluding Henodus, Placochelys, and Psephodermalooked uncannily like genuine turtles, with their stubby heads and legs, hard shells, and tough, sometimes toothless beaks. These marine reptiles were as close as you could get to turtles without actually being turtles; sadly, they went extinct as a group about 200 million years ago. The First Turtles Paleontologists still havent identified the exact family of prehistoric reptiles that spawned modern turtles and tortoises, but they do know one thing: it wasnt the placodonts. Lately, the bulk of the evidence points to an ancestral role for Eunotosaurus, a late Permian reptile whose wide, elongated ribs curved over its back (a striking adumbration of the hard shells of later turtles). Eunotosaurus itself seems to have been a pareiasaur, an obscure family of ancient reptiles the most notable member of which was the (completely unshelled) Scutosaurus. Until recently, fossil evidence linking the land-dwelling Eunotosaurus and the giant, marine turtles of the late Cretaceous period was sorely lacking. That all changed in 2008 with two major discoveries: first up was the late Jurassic, western European Eileanchelys, touted by researchers as the earliest marine turtle yet identified. Unfortunately, only a few weeks later, Chinese paleontologists announced the discovery of Odontochelys, which lived a whopping 50 million years earlier. Crucially, this soft-shelled marine turtle possessed a full set of teeth, which subsequent turtles gradually shed over tens of millions of years of evolution. (A new development as of June 2015: researchers have identified a late Triassic proto-turtle, Pappochelys, that was intermediate in form between Eunotosaurus and Odontochelys and thus fills an important gap in the fossil record!) Odontochelys prowled the shallow waters of eastern Asia about 220 million years ago; another important prehistoric turtle, Proganochelys, pops up in the western European fossil record about 10 million years later. This much bigger turtle had fewer teeth than Odontochelys, and the prominent spikes on its neck meant that it couldnt fully retract its head under its shell (it also possessed  an ankylosaur-like clubbed tail). Most important, the carapace of Proganochelys was fully baked: hard, snug and pretty much impervious to hungry predators. The Giant Turtles of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras By the early Jurassic period, about 200 million years ago, prehistoric turtles and tortoises were pretty much locked into their modern body plans, though there was still room for innovation. The most notable turtles of the Cretaceous period were a pair of marine giants, Archelon and Protostega, both measuring about 10 feet long from head to tail and weighing about two tons. As you might expect, these giant turtles were equipped with broad, powerful front flippers, the better to propel their bulk through the water; their closest living relative is the much smaller (less than one ton) Leatherback. You have to fast-forward about 60 million years, to the Pleistocene epoch, to find prehistoric turtles that approached the size of this duo (this doesnt mean that  giant turtles werent around in the intervening years, just that we havent found much evidence). The one-ton, southern Asian Colossochelys (formerly classified as a species of Testudo) can pretty much be described as a plus-sized Galapagos tortoise, while the slightly smaller Meiolania from Australia improved on the basic turtle body plan with a spiked tail and a huge, weirdly armored head. (By the way, Meiolania received its nameGreek for little wandererin reference to the contemporary Megalania, a two-ton monitor lizard.) The turtles mentioned above all belong to the cryptodire family, which accounts for the vast majority of marine and terrestrial species. But no discussion about prehistoric turtles would be complete without a mention of the aptly named Stupendemys, a two-ton pleurodire turtle of Pleistocene South America (what distinguishes pleurodire from cryptodire turtles is that they pull their heads into their shells with a sideways, rather than a front-to-back, motion). Stupendemys was far and away the largest freshwater turtle that ever lived; most modern side-necks weigh about 20 pounds, max! And while were on the subject, lets not forget the comparably ginormous Carbonemys, which may have done battle with the giant prehistoric snake Titanoboa 60 million years ago in the swamps of South America.

Business Organizations; Employment Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Business Organizations; Employment Law - Essay Example adequate oversight of the accountants was lacking, presence of conflict of interest by the stock analysts, inadequate funding of the Securities and Exchange Commission, lack of adequate disclosure of provisions and presence of corporate governance procedures that were weak. It has been argued that Adelphia’s acts, especially the move by the Rigas family of mixing the finances of the company with those of the company, represents one of the biggest cases of financial fraud in a publicly traded company. In 2004, the SEC filed suit against Adelphia Communications Corporations on charges of financial fraud. In a legal move labelled as the most comprehensive in financial fraud, members of the Rigas family were indicted together with a number of top executives. The charges included-corporate asset waste, RICO act violation, abuse of control, fraudulent conversion and conveyance of company assets, breach of fiduciary duties by the board of directors, and unjust enrichment by the management. The Adelphia Communications case, is one of the biggest cases of corporate malfeasance and has been responsible for the adoption of new business ethics and practices across the globe. Following the scandal, many companies across the globe have adopted stringent corporate codes of conduct, while governments have adopted greater measures to punish management staff from defrauding companies by sentencing guilty parties to life sentences and imposing hefty fines. Improvement and reform of corporate law has been mandated following the scandal. For example, the Corporate Reform Act 2002 empowers the SEC to promulgate professional codes of conduct for securities lawyers. It mandates securities lawyers to prevent violations of securities law by companies or a company employee breaching his/her fiduciary duty to shareholders. Additionally, the society in general has become more vigilant regarding the workings of corporate management and

Journal (Answer All questions) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Journal (Answer All questions) - Essay Example Consequently, describes strategic management as question eight provides the similarities and the differences between military and business strategies. The second last question, describes strategic analysis, development and implementation; the last question provides my experience in relation to the group work. Discussion one Strategies are driven by numerical figures and wide extent of research and analysis of the results; the results are not based on biases, personal opinions or even individual/group’s perception but rather on the tested or expected outcomes. The idea of numerical figures and research in the formulation of strategies at organizational or individual level bring in the scientific dimension of strategies. Additionally, strategies may be considered as an art or craft owing to the fact that it is a tool applied at various managerial facets and it involves the formulation, instrumentation and the examination of various processes geared towards achieving certain goal s (Johnson et al, 2011). Discussion two Intended strategy applies to myriad organizational dimensions; it involves undertaking deliberate planning and execution of the planned courses of actions. In some occasions it may also be referred as deliberate strategy for instance humanitarian organization may formulate tools that will enable them deliver specific forms of assistance to victims of a disaster or industries may develop tools that will enable them fit in a competitive market. Tools used in intended strategy may include; objectives, visions as well as the application of a SWOT analysis process to enhance the achievement of the desired goal (Cooper, 2007). On the other hand, emergent strategies encompass a framework of actions arise over time in the process of implementing organizational plans without intended missions, objectives as well as visions. According to Mintzberg, it is described as ‘a realized pattern that was not intended’. For instance; an organization may realize certain imperative actions that may develop in the process of their operation which may also facilitate the achievement of their goals. Discussion Three The learning school strategy is among the ten schools of strategy; it is based on the idea that strategy is a tool that develops in the process of acquiring new ideas and skills concerning various organizational facets. For instance; an organization may be faced by various challenges in the process of its operation however, new ideas may emerge in the process that may assist in creating a solution to the problem (Bhatt, 2005). The other school of strategy is the position strategy that was developed by Michael Porter who believed that strategy is ascribed to the position of individual in a certain situation or the position of an organization in a certain market scenario which will influence its courses of action. For example; a high demand of commodities in the market may force an organization or an industry to raise the prices of its commodities (Bhatt, 2005). Discussion Four A strategist is a person with the intellectual capacity and skills to formulate a method through the combination of various ideas and perception in order to ensure that certain specific desired goals are achieved. The

Symbolism in Lord of the Flies, by William Golding Essay -- essays res

Symbolism in Lord of the Flies, by William Golding In his classic novel, Lord of the Flies, William Golding uses many elements of symbolism to help the readers gain a greater understanding of his message. Symbolism can be anything, a person, place, or thing, used to portray something beyond its self. It is used to represent or foreshadow the conclusion of the story. As one reads this novel, he or she will begin to recognize the way basic civilization is slowly stripped away from the boys as conflict between civilization and savagery arises. The conch shell represents power and authority. Whoever has the shell has the power to talk. The conch shows how people use objects to give power, like a crown. "Conch?" "That's what this shell's called. I'll give the conch to the next person to speak. He can hold it when he's speaking (pg.33)." This shows that whoever holds the conch during meetings gets to speak At these meetings a sense of order is instilled because the boys have to wait until they hold the conch to speak. The conch becomes a powerful symbol of civilization. "By the time Ralph had finished blowing the conch the platform was crowded." (Golding, 32) Ralph shows his leadership abilities as he recognizes the use of the conch. Ralph begins to take leadership over the boys by setting rules as using the conch to let everyone have a turn to speak. Another symbol of strength and command is the fire. As long as the fire is well maintained, the b...

Greek Mythology Research Paper Essay

Do you know any historical background on the word giant? Greek and Roman mythology is present all around us. Many new and interesting words were created from the Greeks. There are many types of myths that we hear about including; gods, goddesses, mythical heroes, other heroes, monsters, and villains. When looking up these myths, research will show that many of the words we say today come from these gods and goddesses. An example of this is the words gigantic and gigantism comes from giant. The word giant has a long, unique, and mysterious background. According to dictionary. com, â€Å"Giant is very large; abnormally great development in size. †(dictionary. com) Prior to my search, I predicted that a giant was a very large man that lived in the forest and had no connection with either gigantic nor gigantism. I inferred this because of movies and books. When I saw the word gigantic I remember hearing it and I thought it meant a large person, but I had no idea it was related to Greek or Roman mythology. Gigantism puzzled me because I’ve never heard it before. As I came across the definition of gigantic, I found out that it meant very large which connects to giant and gigantism. (dictionary. com) upon conducting research, I learned more about the root word giant, coming across information about its etymology and actual story behind it. Perrizo 2 Giant’s roots go all the way back before gods or even humans existed. The etymology relates back to Greek mythology the giants were the children of Uranus and Gaea. They were involved in a conflict with the Olympian gods called the Gigantomachy, which was eventually settled when the hero Heracles decided to help the Olympians. The Greeks believed some giants lay buried from that time under the earth and that they resulted in earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Many stories have been written about giants in lots of cultures. In Norse mythology, the giants are the origin of most of various monsters, and in the eventual battle of Ragnarok the giants will storm Asgard and defeat them in war. The gods themselves were related to the giants by many marriages, and there are giants such as ? gir, Loki, Mimir and Ska? i, who have little difference in status to them. In Bulgarian mythology, giants called ispolini inhabited the Earth before modern humans. They lived in the mountains, fed on raw meat and often fought against dragons. Ispolini were afraid of blackberries which posed a danger of tripping and dying, so they offered sacrifices to that plant. Giants stand for the Basque people not willing to convert to Christianity who decides to stick to the old life style and customs in the forest. Sometimes they hold the secret of ancient techniques and wisdom unknown to the Christians, like in the legend of San Martin Txiki, while their most outstanding feature is their strength. It follows that in many legends all over the Basque territory the giants are held accountable for the creation of many stone formations, hills and old structures, with similar explanations provided in different spots. There are many similarities and differences in the words giant, gigantic, and gigantism. Gigantic is big: very large, tall, or bulky. Giant is a very tall imaginary creature: in fairy tales and legends, an imaginary being who resembles a human but is much taller, larger, and stronger. Perrizo 3 Gigantism is the quality of being giant: the quality or condition of being much taller, larger, or stronger than is usual. These three definitions are similar to each other because all of them have to do with being large. Today these words are all used to describe how tall, strong, or big someone is. All of these words also share the same Greek, Roman, and other origins. These he creatures. This particular word has a very long and precise background, whereas gigantic and gigantism have a short and not informational background. Not only is the word giant relevant in today’s world, famous playwright William Shakespeare alludes to the word in one of his plays. In Shakespeare’s play much ado about nothing, Claudio uses the word giant in act 1 scene 3. â€Å"He is then a giant to an ape; but then is an ape a doctor to such a man. †(line 2276) Shakespeare uses the monsters name as an illusion to illustrate the comparison between a giant, an ape, and man. Perhaps Shakespeare wanted to show the difference between stupid and so-called smart. Giant is being used to illustrate that a giant and an ape are two unintelligent creatures. Aside from Shakespeare’s use of the word, giant is used in the following quote from measure for measure. â€Å"O, I do fear thee, Claudio; and I quake, lest thou a fevorous life shouldest entertain, and six or seven winters more respect than a perpetual honor. Darest thou die? The sense of death is most apprehension; and the poor beetle that we tread upon, in corpual sufferance finds a pang as great as when a giant dies. † (isabell). The word giant is used in reference to emphasize the greatness of a giant dieing with Claudio dying. perrizo 4 Whether giant is used in Shakespeare or other forms of literature, the words etymology seems to be prevalent in today’s world. The word Is regularly used today, ranging from a gas company, to a disability center. The general meaning of giant hasn’t changed over time, but only people who are educated about the word know its true mythical meaning. For example gigantism organization is an organization for the tallest people in the world. I did not find a relevant industry on website on giant or gigantic. When writing this paper, I learned a plethora of information about the word giant, and its ethnic background. Not only did I learn about this interesting monster, I gained experience on learning how to evaluate reliable sources and search the web cautiously. This essay taught me that the majority of the words we use today have an origins that dates back to Roman and Greek times. Giant originated the words gigantic and gigantism, and I found a great deal of information that connected giant to both of the other words. Furthermore, locating the information necessary to complete the project was easy and fast, but then I began to write my report, I had to think about where to start and how to organize the information I had into a cohesive essay. Finally,, I learned that people can misconstrue the meanings of words easily if they do not understand or use the words correctly. All people need to develop their communication skills and look up unfamiliar words or inquire about the origin of words so they learn about the amazing history of our amazing language. Perrizo 5 Works cited et, al. http://dictionary. reference. com/browse/giant. N. p. , 6 2012. Web. 6 Nov 2012. burton, robert. http://www. bartleby. com/100/151. 5. html. N. p.. Web. 11/6/2012. encyclopedia britannica online . † http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/232937/giant. encyclopedia Britannihjca, 24 2012. Web. 7 Nov 2012. Lindemans, Micha F.. â€Å"giant. † http://www. pantheon. org/articles/g/giant. html. N. p. , 03 1997. Web. feb 24 2004. shakespeare. â€Å"merchant of venice. † http://www. opensourceshakespeare. org/concordance/o/? i=768422&pleasewait=1&msg=sr. university 2012. Web. 2007-2012.

The Iceberg Theory in the Old Man and the Sea - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 2886 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/09/21 Category Advertising Essay Type Argumentative essay Tags: Organization Essay Did you like this example? In business, organization structure means the relationships between positions people who hold the positions. Organization structure is very important because it provides an efficient work system as well as a system of communication. First of all we should distinguish between the organizing function organizing structure. The organizing function is the process of breaking down the overall task into small jobs along with delegated authority to do those jobs then putting them back together in units, or departments, of an optimal size according to some consistent bases. Thus we can describe the organizing function as dividing task into jobs, delegating authority, determining appropriate bases for departmentalizing jobs, deciding the optimal number of jobs in a particular department. It helps to coordinate effort create authority relationships. Organizing structure is considered by many to be â€Å"the anatomy of the organization, providing a foundation within which the or ganization functions†. So the idea of a structure is a frame work – differentiation of position, prescriptions of authority. So structure helps to regulate the behavior of employees. There are can be different kinds of organization structure, firms can change their organization structure by becoming more or less centralized. Most organization have a hierarchical or pyramidal structure, with one person or a group of people at the top, increasing number of people below them at each successive level. There is a clear line or chain of command running down the pyramid. All the people in the organization know what decision they are able to make, who their superior (or boss) is (to whom they report), who their immediate subordinates are (to whom they can give instructions). This structure is one of the simplest   it’s also called a line structure. Some people in the organization have colleagues who help them: for example, there are might be an Assistant to t he Marketing Manager. This is known as a staff position: its holder has no line authority, is not integrated into the chain of command, unlike, for example, the Assistant Marketing Manager, who is number two in the marketing department. This structure is known as a staff structure. Yet the activities of most companies are too complicated to be organized in a single hierarchy. Shortly before the First World War, the French industrialist Henry Fayol organized his coal-mining business according to the functions that it had to carry out. He is generally credited with inventing functional organization, including (among others) production, finance, marketing, sales, personnel or staff departments. The functional type of organization structure reflects an arrangement based on the nature of the activities that must be performed. Related activities are grouped together in the functional areas with which they are most clearly identified. The chief executive of each area occupies a pos ition on the second level of the organization generally has the title Vice-President. This means, for example, that the production marketing departments cannot take financial decisions without consulting the finance department. The functional structure allows for coordination of related activities, thereby reducing the risk of empire building by specialized areas resulting in greater efficiency. The structure’s most distinguishing feature is that staff managers may have line (functional) authority for their particular activities. But in a functional structure the request could be an order. As I’ve already said the functional structure is efficient, but there are two standard criticisms. Firstly, people are usually more concerned with the success of their department than that of the company, so there are permanent battles between, for example, finance marketing, or marketing production, which have incompatible goals. Secondly, separating functions is unlikely to encourage innovation. An inherit problem of hierarchies is that people at lower level are unable to make important decision, but have to pass on responsibility to their boss. One solution to this is matrix management, in which people report to more than one superior. For example, a product manager with an idea might be able to deal directly with managers responsible for a certain market segment for a geographical region, as well as managers responsible for the traditional functions of finance, sales production. This is one way of keeping authority at lower levels, but it’s not necessarily a very efficient one. Thomas Peters Robert Waterman in their book â€Å"In search of Excellence† insist on the necessity of pushing authority autonomy down the line, but they argue that one element – probably the product – must have priority; four-dimensional matrices are far too complex. A further possibility is to have wholly autonomous, temporary groups or terms that are responsible for an entire project, are split up as soon as it is successfully completed. Terms are often not good for decision-making, they run the risk of relational problems, unless they are small have a lot of self-discipline. In fact they still require a definite leader, on whom their success probably depends. In matrix geographical structure decentralization plays the key role. it has its advantages disadvantages. Advantages of decentralization: 1. It encourages managers to develop their decision-making ability, training for promotion into position of greater authority responsibility. 2. It creates competitive climate. Managers can be compared with each other that make them to be more productive. 3. Managers have more freedom so they can be involved into solving different problems, so they become more creative. Many organizations choose to follow decentralization of authority. But it also has disadvantages: 1. It needs more intensive expensive manageme nt training. Managers must be retrained for making decisions of high-level. 2. It needs more sophisticated planning reporting methods, especially for upper management, because the flow of information to upper managers increases. 3. Top managers should delegate a portion of their decision-making job to middle 1st level managers, but sometimes they can be unwilling unable to do it. †¢ Every company is structured differently, and every structure provides its own unique benefits. Understanding what goes into the development of these structures and how they operate will help you to better navigate the structure youre in, or select the right one for the company you are in the midst of creating. Functional †¢ A functional or traditional structure is one of the oldest structures utilized in businesses. It is the epitome of the top-down view of organizational structure. In functional structure, people are grouped together because they perform the same kinds of tasks with t he same kinds of skills towards the same kinds of goals. For example, all of the copywriters in a publishing company would be sectioned off from all of the visual artists. Divisional †¢ A divisional structure melds together the groups in a functional structure into separate, self-sufficient work units. Each unit will have enough individuals with varied skills to work on one component of the overall organizations goals. For example, one unit might focus on marketing one product, and have a copywriter, a visual artist, a public relations liason and a web programmer working together. Federations †¢ Federation style organization structures are a spin-off of divisional structures in a macro sense. With this kind of structure, units in an organization do not work together. Instead, different companies form a federation of sorts where each individual company is accountable for one component of a goal. For example, a production, distribution and marketing company may work to gether under contract of an umbrella company, forming a system of independent but interlinked groupings working toward a common goal. Matrix †¢ A matrix structure is a hybrid of the functional and divisional structures. In this structure, a management team will select participants from functional units to operate in a divisional manner. In other words, individuals working in different capacities will be brought together to work toward a common goal. Flat †¢ One of the newer forms of organizational structure is a flat or cooperative form of organization. In this, the the common conceptualizations of top-down management are put aside in favor of a more team-oriented atmosphere. While individuals will still assume levels of leadership, the structure encourages a feeling of collective ownership, with each individual being accountable for the performance of all participants. Interconnected characteristics of a market, such as the number and relative strength of buyers and se llers and degree of collusion among them, level and forms of competition, extent of product differentiation, and ease of entry into and exit from the market. Four basic types of market structure are (1) Perfect competition: many buyers and sellers, none being able to influence prices. (2) Oligopoly: several large sellers who have some control over the prices. (3) Monopoly: single seller with considerable control over supply and prices. (4) Monospony: single buyer with considerable control over demand and prices. LINE AND STAFF STRUCTURE ORGANIZATION Staff authority is used to support the line authority. Line authorities are more involved in the core activities of the business. They have little time to analyze all information for many decisions. They do not have expertise in all technical areas. Staffs are specialists, who help line authority in discharging their duties. For example, a production manager (a line authority) does not have enough time and experience to handle labo r relation problems. Staffs (who are specialists) help them in doing so. Line and staff organizations have both line and staff executives. Line executives are assisted by staff specialists in R D, planning, distribution, quality, legal, audit, public relations, etc. The job of staff is mainly advisory and guidance. Line executives maintain the supervisory power and control over the execution of work. Factors Affecting Organizational Design Although many things can affect the choice of an appropriate structure for an organization, the following five factors are the most common: size, life cycle, strategy, environment, and technology. [pic] Organizational size The larger an organization becomes, the more complicated its structure. When an organization is small — such as a single retail store, a two-person consulting firm, or a restaurant — its structure can be simple. In reality, if the organization is very small, it may not even have a formal structure. Instead o f following an organizational chart or specified job functions, individuals simply perform tasks based on their likes, dislikes, ability, and/or need. Rules and guidelines are not prevalent and may exist only to provide the parameters within which organizational members can make decisions. Small organizations are very often organic systems. As an organization grows, however, it becomes increasingly difficult to manage without more formal work assignments and some delegation of authority. Therefore, large organizations develop formal structures. Tasks are highly specialized, and detailed rules and guidelines dictate work procedures. Interorganizational communication flows primarily from superior to subordinate, and hierarchical relationships serve as the foundation for authority, responsibility, and control. The type of structure that develops will be one that provides the organization with the ability to operate effectively. Thats one reason larger organizations are often mechani stic—mechanistic systems are usually designed to maximize specialization and improve efficiency. Organization life cycle Organizations, like humans, tend to progress through stages known as a life cycle. Like humans, most organizations go through the following four stages: birth, youth, midlife, and maturity. Each stage has characteristics that have implications for the structure of the firm. †¢ Birth: In the birth state, a firm is just beginning. An organization in the birth stage does not yet have a formal structure. In a young organization, there is not much delegation of authority. The founder usually â€Å"calls the shots. †¢ Youth: In this phase, the organization is trying to grow. The emphasis in this stage is on becoming larger. The company shifts its attention from the wishes of the founder to the wishes of the customer. The organization becomes more organic in structure during this phase. It is during this phase that the formal structure is designed, a nd some delegation of authority occurs. †¢ Midlife: This phase occurs when the organization has achieved a high level of success. An organization in midlife is larger, with a more complex and increasingly formal structure. More levels appear in the chain of command, and the founder may have difficulty remaining in control. As the organization becomes older, it may also become more mechanistic in structure. †¢ Maturity: Once a firm has reached the maturity phase, it tends to become less innovative, less interested in expanding, and more interested in maintaining itself in a stable, secure environment. The emphasis is on improving efficiency and profitability. However, in an attempt to improve efficiency and profitability, the firm often tends to become less innovative. Stale products result in sales declines and reduced profitability. Organizations in this stage are slowly dying. However, maturity is not an inevitable stage. Firms experiencing the decline of maturity may institute the changes necessary to revitalize. Although an organization may proceed sequentially through all four stages, it does not have to. An organization may skip a phase, or it may cycle back to an earlier phase. An organization may even try to change its position in the life cycle by changing its structure. As the life-cycle concept implies, a relationship exists between an organizations size and age. As organizations age, they tend to get larger; thus, the structural changes a firm experiences as it gets larger and the changes it experiences as it progresses through the life cycle are parallel. Therefore, the older the organization and the larger the organization, the greater its need for more structure, more specialization of tasks, and more rules. As a result, the older and larger the organization becomes, the greater the likelihood that it will move from an organic structure to a mechanistic structure. Strategy How an organization is going to position itself in the market in terms of its product is considered its strategy. A company may decide to be always the first on the market with the newest and best product (differentiation strategy), or it may decide that it will produce a product already on the market more efficiently and more cost effectively (cost-leadership strategy). Each of these strategies requires a structure that helps the organization reach its objectives. In other words, the structure must fit the strategy. Companies that want to be the first on the market with the newest and best product probably are organic, because organic structures permit organizations to respond quickly to changes. Companies that elect to produce the same products more efficiently and effectively will probably be mechanistic. Environment The environment is the world in which the organization operates, and includes conditions that influence the organization such as economic, social-cultural, legal-political, technological, and natural environment c onditions. Environments are often described as either stable or dynamic. †¢ In a stable environment, the customers desires are well understood and probably will remain consistent for a relatively long time. Examples of organizations that face relatively stable environments include manufacturers of staple items such as detergent, cleaning supplies, and paper products. †¢ In a dynamic environment, the customers desires are continuously changing—the opposite of a stable environment. This condition is often thought of as turbulent. In addition, the technology that a company uses while in this environment may need to be continuously improved and updated. An example of an industry functioning in a dynamic environment is electronics. Technology changes create competitive pressures for all electronics industries, because as technology changes, so do the desires of consumers. In general, organizations that operate in stable external environments find mechanistic struct ures to be advantageous. This system provides a level of efficiency that enhances the long-term performances of organizations that enjoy relatively stable operating environments. In contrast, organizations that operate in volatile and frequently changing environments are more likely to find that an organic structure provides the greatest benefits. This structure allows the organization to respond to environment change more proactively. Technology Advances in technology are the most frequent cause of change in organizations since they generally result in greater efficiency and lower costs for the firm. Technology is the way tasks are accomplished using tools, equipment, techniques, and human know-how. In the early 1960s, Joan Woodward found that the right combination of structure and technology were critical to organizational success. She conducted a study of technology and structure in more than 100 English manufacturing firms, which she classified into three categories of cor e-manufacturing technology: †¢ Small-batch production is used to manufacture a variety of custom, made-to-order goods. Each item is made somewhat differently to meet a customers specifications. A print shop is an example of a business that uses small-batch production. Mass production is used to create a large number of uniform goods in an assembly-line system. Workers are highly dependent on one another, as the product passes from stage to stage until completion. Equipment may be sophisticated, and workers often follow detailed instructions while performing simplified jobs. A company that bottles soda pop is an example of an organization that utilizes mass production. †¢ Organizations using continuous-process production create goods by continuously feeding raw materials, such as liquid, solids, and gases, through a highly automated system. Such systems are equipment intensive, but can often be operated by a relatively small labor force. Classic examples are automated ch emical plants and oil refineries. Woodward discovered that small-batch and continuous processes had more flexible structures, and the best mass-production operations were more rigid structures. Once again, organizational design depends on the type of business. The small-batch and continuous processes work well in organic structures and mass production operations work best in mechanistic structures. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Iceberg Theory in the Old Man and the Sea" essay for you Create order